Microeconomics - Types of Markets Research Paper

Microeconomics - Types of Markets - Research Paper Example In the long run, the firms are ought to make a normal profit and the market price is determined by the forces of demand and supply. However, an important point to note is the situation in the long run equilibrium. If demand increases to a great extent, the price will rise. Therefore, the demand curve will shift upwards causing firms to make supernormal profits. More firms would join the industry and hence, the price will fall again settling at the equilibrium rate. Also, if the average costs are greater than the average revenue then most firms would go out of business. Once the supply curve falls, prices tend to rise. Perfect competition means there should be no imperfections in the market which may arise due to lack of knowledge or immobility of resources. Nonetheless, these factors are unrealistic in this world. One of the important reasons why perfect competition does not exist in the real world is the economies of scale. In most of the industries, a firm has to be quite large to experience economies of scale. But in perfect competition, firms have an insignificant market share and are too small to achieve economies of scale. Once a firm expands and achieves economies of scale, it would lower its costs and gain market power. The firm can reduce the prices and drive out the smaller firms from the industry. Hence a perfect competition can only survive in an industry where there are no economies of scale. Although the perfectly competitive market model is not applicable to the real world setting, it plays a significant role in economic analysis and policy. The model can be used as a criterion to judge the deficiencies of the real world industries and can help the government to articulate policies towards the betterment of the industry. A single industry that produces a product is called a monopoly. This is not it, however, no close substitutes are present and barriers to enter and exit the market are high.  Such barriers include patents, heavy investments, copyrights or achieving economies of a scale comparable to the monopoly.  

Experimental Study Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Experimental Study - Article Example The other exposures of interest include use of nitrous oxide, the utilization of slightly hypoxic mixtures during anesthesia, and postoperative opioid administration. The effectiveness of dexamethasone as antiemetic was compared with the two serotonin subtype 3 antagonists ondansetron and granisetron in 80 patients divided into four groups undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Group 1, consisting of control patients, received 0.9% NaCl; group 2 patients received ondansetron 4 mg i.v.; group 3 patients received granisetron 3 mg i.v.; and group 4 patients received dexamethasone 8 mg i.v., all before the induction of anesthesia. Both nausea and vomiting were assessed during the first 24 h after the procedure. Inclusion Criteria: A total of 80 American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical class I–II patients scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy were included. The age range was from 21 to 75 years (mean: 51.5 years). Each patient gave his or her written consent to participate in the study. The study was approved by the Medical University ethics committee. The exclusion criteria: The patients’ exclusion criteria were as follows: American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) physical class III–IV; age over 75 years; body mass index above 30; pregnancy; smoking; signs of gastrointestinal, endocrine, renal, hepatic or immunological disease; use of opioids or tranquillizers less than 1 week before the operation; treatment with steroids; history of alcohol or drug abuse; history of motion sickness; preoperative diagnosis of gallbladder empyema and previous endoscopic sphincterotomy for common bile duct stones; and conversion to open cholecystectomy. The incidence of nausea and vomiting was recorded during three assessment periods, 0–6 h, 6–12 h, and 12–24 h, by nursing staff without knowledge of which antiemetic the patients had received. Both nausea and vomiting were

Toyota Company in China Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Toyota Company in China - Case Study Example This paper will use the Porters five forces model as well as SWOT analysis in assessing the market entry strategy employed by Toyota Company to enter the Chinese market. Hill and Jones (2007) affirm that once the boundary of an organisation has been established, strategic planning managers are faced with the task of analysing competitive forces with the organisational climate to establish threats and opportunities. The Porter’s five forces model sheds more light on the five integral forces that shapes competition within an organisation. It also examines the degree of rivalry among firms, the bargaining strength of suppliers, as well as the proximity of the alternatives to the firm’s product as well as the bargaining strength of customers or buyers (Kotler, Berger & Bickhoff 2010). This model stipulates that the higher the degree of strength of each of the five forces, the less the capacity of the identified firms to hike prices and rip maximum returns. In this model, a strong competitive force can be perceived as threat. This is attributed to the fact that stronger competitive forces suppress returns. On the other hand, weak competitive forces can be perceived as opportunity.This is because weak forces enable a firm to make bigger profits (Patnaik 2012). According to Dyck and Neubert (2008), the strength of the five forces can undergo histrionic transformation via time as the firm situations are altered.

Experimental Study Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Experimental Study - Article Example The other exposures of interest include use of nitrous oxide, the utilization of slightly hypoxic mixtures during anesthesia, and postoperative opioid administration. The effectiveness of dexamethasone as antiemetic was compared with the two serotonin subtype 3 antagonists ondansetron and granisetron in 80 patients divided into four groups undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Group 1, consisting of control patients, received 0.9% NaCl; group 2 patients received ondansetron 4 mg i.v.; group 3 patients received granisetron 3 mg i.v.; and group 4 patients received dexamethasone 8 mg i.v., all before the induction of anesthesia. Both nausea and vomiting were assessed during the first 24 h after the procedure. Inclusion Criteria: A total of 80 American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical class I–II patients scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy were included. The age range was from 21 to 75 years (mean: 51.5 years). Each patient gave his or her written consent to participate in the study. The study was approved by the Medical University ethics committee. The exclusion criteria: The patients’ exclusion criteria were as follows: American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) physical class III–IV; age over 75 years; body mass index above 30; pregnancy; smoking; signs of gastrointestinal, endocrine, renal, hepatic or immunological disease; use of opioids or tranquillizers less than 1 week before the operation; treatment with steroids; history of alcohol or drug abuse; history of motion sickness; preoperative diagnosis of gallbladder empyema and previous endoscopic sphincterotomy for common bile duct stones; and conversion to open cholecystectomy. The incidence of nausea and vomiting was recorded during three assessment periods, 0–6 h, 6–12 h, and 12–24 h, by nursing staff without knowledge of which antiemetic the patients had received. Both nausea and vomiting were

Sweatshops Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sweatshops - Essay Example Nike violated laws about working conditions, working hours, and forced overtime. They have been labeled as employing ‘sweatshop’ conditions in their manufacturing units. Due to globalization markets expanded and the market discipline intensified. This discipline penetrated into the spheres of lives of people previously untouched. The global garment industry offers the western consumers a wide variety of styles and fashion at affordable prices. Competition in the industry gave rise to sweatshops. To survive amidst competition, market restructuring had to be done in the form of buyer-driven commodity chains and lean retailing (Micheletti, 2006). They had to respond to the changing consumer demands for fashion and quality at reasonable prices. They had to invest to create and satisfy the fluctuating demands of the consumers. To deliver fashion and quality they had to rely on the individual garment workers and not the machinery. People started clamoring for branded products and brand culture was what became the decisive factor. Sweatshops are not new to America and since the industrial revolution many generations have toiled in sweatshops. Usually women, children or unskilled workers are used in sweatshops from the poverty-stricken families, who have no other option to earn a livelihood. Their pay is sub-standard and the working conditions are unsafe and unhygienic. Although it essentially started in the garment industry, but it exists in other industries as well. Sweat shops are the result of greed and opportunism; they may also stem from competitive pressures. These have come into existence due to globalization, government regulations, immigration, business practices, racial, ethnic and gender discrimination. The people are underpaid and overworked while the working conditions are unsanitary and far from reasonable. It violates safety, heath, wage and child labor laws. People have gone to the extent of saying that they would

Childhood Essay Example for Free

Childhood Essay Though many are of the view that childhood is the happiest time of a persons life I do not think we can generalize it is so. Of cause childhood is a very enjoyable phase in a mans life which is free from many responsibilities and challenges of the adulthood. However I believe there are several conditions that need to be satisfied for a happy childhood. First and foremost, a child should have loving and caring parents who could provide physical, emotional, social and intellectual needs of their child. How many children have such parents today? There are thousands of children raised by foster homes or orphanages. Most of these children have never experienced the love of their mothers or fathers. In fact many a them even do not know who their parents are. These children are often deprived from many privileges and rights of a normal child. We could also see that the numbers of single parents are ever increasing due to various socio economic reasons. It is a known fact that single parents have to struggle hard to raise their children without the help of their partner and in most cases they fail to provide necessary requirements of their children, especially with respect to emotional factors. The security of the child is another important factor that decides whether the childhood is a happy one or not. In my country there was a civil war which spanned for thirty years and fortunately became to an end in the last year. The children who were born during these thirty years of war were raised under its dark shadows. In most families, the fathers had to join the army to fight against the terrorists. Many did not return home leaving endless problems for their families. There were frequent bomb blasts directed on civilians by the terrorists and in many instances children were victims. Also the children in the areas under terrorist control were abducted by the terrorists to strengthen their carders. These children were completely deprived from all their rights as children. They were neither allowed to be with their loved ones nor to attend school. Instead they were given a gun and trained to fire at the enemy. They were taught to hate not to love. How can we say that the childhood is the happiest time for such children?

Approaches To Tackling Cervical Cancer Health And Social Care Essay

Approaches To Tackling Cervical Cancer Health And Social Care Essay The Health Promotion logo incorporates five key action areas in Health Promotion (build healthy public policy, create supportive environments for health, strengthen community action for health, develop personal skills, and re-orient health services) and the three basic Health Promotion strategies (to enable, mediate, and advocate) as described by the World Health Organisation in the Ottawa Charter (World Health Organisation 1986; Nutbeam 1998). In Nigeria, incidence rate of cervical cancer is the estimated at 25 per 100,000 women; with an about 8000 new cases of cervical cancer diagnosed each year(Adewole, Benedet et al. 2005). CITED IN OKONOFUA. The National Cervical Cancer Prevention Programme (NCCPP)-the first national effort towards the cervical cancer prevention in Nigeria-was formally launched by the Honourable Minister of Women Affairs and Social Development in October, 2008. Potential approaches to tackling cervical cancer Medical or preventive approach: primary prevention via HPV vaccination and secondary prevention via cervical screening .This closely aligns with the principle highlighted in the Alma Ata declaration which focuses on prevention rather than cure(World Health Organisation 1978). Behavioural approach: encouraging clients to take-up screening services and also encouraging clients to adopt healthy sexual behaviour through group or one-to-one counselling as well as mass campaigns. Educational approach: increase awareness of the cause of cervical cancer via sex education (peer education and family life skills curriculum). Knowledge about the risk factors for cervical cancer may change sexual attitudes and ultimately behaviour. Socio-economic factors may however limit voluntary change in behaviour. Provision of leaflets, booklets, group, and one-to-one advice may be used to educate on the risks of the disease. Social change approach: free education for teen females and free vocational training programmes and improving access to education. Empowerment approach: enhance life skills through family life skills curriculum and peer-education which help in teaching female teenagers assertiveness and negotiation, and self esteem building regarding sexual issues. Theoretical underpinning for cervical cancer screening This intervention combines the medical (preventive), behavioural and educational approaches to health promotion. The theoretical framework is the modified health belief model(Rosenstock, Strecher et al. 1988) of health-related decision making. The Health Belief Model (HBM) has been widely used in the prediction of cervical cancer screening uptake (Gillam 1991; Austin, Ahmad et al. 2002; Johnson, Mues et al. 2008).It is based on the individuals perceptions of the threat posed by a health problem (susceptibility, severity), the advantages of avoiding the threat, and factors influencing the health related decisions (barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy). This value-expectancy model(Shumaker, Ockene et al. 2009) suggests that whether people change their health behaviour, accept an intervention, or not would depend on if they believe its benefits outweigh its risks (e.g. death) or costs (time and money). It suggests that women are influenced by how vulnerable they think they are to cervical cancer (perceived susceptibility) and how serious they consider it to be (perceived severity). This theory has however been criticised as being unable to predict behaviour but it can potentially serve as a framework for elucidating womens reactions to screening and help in devising methods of increasing participation, improving the quality of the service, and reducing womens anxiety towards cervical cancer diagnosis(Fylan 1998). According to the HBM, asymptomatic people may not go for cervical screening unless they accept that, though they have no symptoms, they may in fact have pre-cancerous lesions (perceived susceptibility). They must understand that cervical cancer is a leading cause of death (perceived severity). Taking a Pap smear test will reduce the risk of cervical cancer (perceived benefits) without negative side effects or excessive difficulty (perceived barriers). Posters, reminder letters and messages, or radio announcements especially in the local dialect mig ht encourage women to go for screening (cues to action). For those who have had a friend or relative developing cancer, counselling might help build confidence in taking up the service (self-efficacy). Individual perceptions Modifying factors Likelihood of action Perceived benefits of cervical screening-avoidance of premature death minus Perceived barriers to cervical screening -accessing healthcare facilities (transport), inconvenient clinic times, lack of a female screener (especially for muslim women), fatalistic view of cancer, cost of testing, lack of patient-friendly services, cultural health beliefs, language barriers, fear of discrimination, spouse disapproval, absence of symptoms Demographic variables Age (>20), female (gender),marital status Socio-psychological variables Low socio-economic status, poor nutrition, level of education, polygamy, multiple sexual partners Structural variables Knowledge about cervical cancer, prior contact with people with cervical cancer Perceived susceptibility to cervical cancer Perceived severity of cervical cancer Perceived threat of cervical cancer Likelihood of having a pap smear Cues to action Advice from physicians and lay persons (friends, neighbours, relatives, community leaders, and spiritual leaders) Mass media campaigns-radio announcements and broadcasts (in English and local dialect), newspaper articles, billboards, television, press advertisements Booklets, leaflets, and posters placed in public places like supermarkets; handbills Illness or death of a friend or close relative from cervical cancer Reminders from physicians Health Belief Model of Cervical Cancer Prevention (Adapted from (Naidoo and Wills 2009)-Health Belief Model pg. The theory of reason action and theory of planned behaviour may be used to predict response to cervical cancer screening based on looking up to the health promoters as models. Role of the media in cervical screening Using the media to pass on information and advice is an important strategy or tool for health promotion. Much of public health issues-including smoking and HIV/AIDS -have been successfully improved via extensive media campaigns. Media messages help in reaching large numbers of people. The vital role of research in health promotion has been supported by research (Marcus and Crane 1998; Jenkins, McPhee et al. 1999).Mass media campaigns aim to raise awareness or provide messages about participation in the intervention. Mobile phone text messaging is a potentially useful means of sending invitations and reminders for screening. A research finding also stated that mobile phone messages `seems to be an effective tool for increasing compliance with vaccination schedules'(Vilella, Bayas et al. 2004).A trial demonstrated that attendance at primary care centres improved via mobile phone text messaging (Leong, Chen et al. 2006)and unhealthy behaviours such as smoking(Rodgers, Corbett et al. 2005) has been shown in research to be improved by text messages. Furthermore, a systematic review also indicated that mass media interventions may play a key role in influencing the use of healthcare interventions(Grilli, Freemantle et al. 2000). Linear causal and diffusion of innovation model have been used to explain the effects of media on an audience.REVISE AND ADD 3 LINES FROM TAG AND NAIDOO Though media is effective at reaching large nos of people the understanding and recall by the target audience cannot be guaranteed .It must be supported by other strategies like reimforcement from experts. CITE NAIDOP189 PLUS SOURCESCHECK NAIDOO AND WILLS .There is also a problem of interpreting statistics research studies and interpretation of risk. Social marketing=market women,university students,female health care wokers,women in churches,muslim women Read pg 194 plus few other ar Rationale for cervical screening For a screening for a disease to be effective: the disease must be an important health problem; the natural course of the disease should be well understood; the disease should have a long detectable preclinical phase; must have effective treatment and early treatment should improve outcome; the test should be highly specific and sensitive; and adequate resources to perform the test should be available and it should be cost effective(Naidoo and Wills 2005). LINK THESE TO PAP SMEAR AND CERV CA + CITE epide/sys reviews/rcts The Ewles and Simnett model(Ewles and Simnett 2003) combined with a logic framework would be used in planning the programme. Needs assessment: the case for cervical cancer screening in Ibadan The needs assessment for this programme is carried out from the professionals perspective using the epidemiological approach (Williams and Wright 1998; Bowling and Jones 2002; Tones and Green 2004).Needs assessment is best carried out using both qualitative and quantitative information(Gilmore and Campbell 2005).It is done in order to help establish priorities ,assist planning, justify the use of resources and also in planning evaluation. It brings to light the magnitude of the problem and establishes a baseline against which the health promotion intervention can be evaluated. Ibadan is large community located in Nigeria. It shares a unique mix of middle class -mainly government workers and university staff -and socially disadvantaged groups. It has a substantial number of Muslims spanning the Yoruba and Hausa ethnic groups .Literacy level is low. The transport system is inexpensive but poorly organised and most women are involved in petty trading. Health services available are one teaching hospital, 3 state-owned general hospitals, and primary health centres located within each LGA. Epidemiological data-morbidity, and mortality statistics-from the University College Hospital (UCH) Ibadan cancer registry- was used to identify and quantify the incidence of cervical cancers occurring in the community. The mean age of years at presentation. A recent study by doctors at the University College Hospital, Ibadan as reported by The Punch of November 7, 2002 gave credence to the emerging trend revealing- that out of- Nigerian women have breast cancer. Based on this finding, 34,800 new cases would be expected in 2003 an increase from 27,840 or 25% in 1999. Selection of intervention population Based on needs assessment, practical considerations such as level of funding, the pathogenesis of human papillomavirus infection and to a lesser degree current life-expectancy statistics? This intervention targets women between 20 and 65 years old Justify with evidence Aim The programme overall aim is to reduce the morbidity and premature mortality from cervical cancer in Ibadan? Objectives To raise the awareness of cervical cancer and screening to 85% by the year 2014 To increase to about 70% participation( the percentage of eligible women screened by ) To Intervention and resources=500 words The intervention is a community-based intervention set in Ade-Oyo Ibadan, a community in the South-Western region of Nigeria. Mass media campaigns to promote cervical cancer screening-planned media coverage funded by sponsoring bodies plus unpaid media coverage in newspapers-the recent death of a former first lady from ovarian cancer may increase awareness and the involvement of the current first lady in cancer initiatives has led to a dramatic increase in media coverage of cancer related issues. Stakeholders-represenative of the press? Primary staeholders-the women Secondary stakeholders Health professionals-general practitioners,specialist gynaecologists,health promotion and public health nurses,community health extension workers Key stakeholders Funding bodies and ngos World Health Organisation , Mass Medical Mission (MMM) ,PATH Policy makers- agencies/FMOH/Oyo State moh,Ministry of Women Affairs RESOURCES Pap smear plus acetoacettttt Target? by 2014 Evaluation of the cervical cancer prevention programme=300 -400 words Ethical principles 3-4 lines Political dimensions3-4 statements Politics can be looked at from a power perspective and defined as the production ,distribution and use of scarce resourcesCite IN NAIDOO(Heywood 2000). Politics play an important role in the success of health promotion interventions. ATTACH LOGIC FRAMEWORK Quantitative approach: Conclusion This health promotion intervention has used the medica approach to hp which is often viewed as being mechanistic redustic view of health